We propose a new heuristic model that incorporates metabolic rate and pace of life to predict a vertebrate species' investment in adaptive immune function. Using reptiles as an example, we hypothesize that animals with low metabolic rates will invest more in innate immunity compared with adaptive immunity. High metabolic rates and body temperatures should logically optimize the efficacy of the ...

Dendritic cells (DCs) are specialized, bone marrow-derived leukocytes that are critical to the development of immunity. Investigators have emphasized the role of DCs in initiating adaptive or acquired MHC-restricted, Ag-specific T cell responses. More recent evidence supports important roles for DCs in the onset of innate immunity and peripheral tolerance. Progress in the generation of DCs from...

The host immune system is the first line of host defense, consisting mainly of innate and adaptive immunity. Immunity must be maintained, orchestrated, and harmonized, since overactivation of immune responses can lead to inflammation and autoimmune diseases, while immune deficiency can lead to infectious diseases. We investigated the regulation of innate and adaptive immune cell activation by A...

Innate immune responses to pathogens critically impact the development of adaptive immune responses. However, it is not completely understood how innate immunity controls the initiation of adaptive immunities or how it determines which type of adaptive immunity will be induced to eliminate a given pathogen. Here we show that viral stimulation not only triggers natural interferon (IFN)-alpha/bet...

Introduction Ageing of the immune system (immunosenescence) contributes to the increased susceptibility of the elderly to infectious disease and to the poor outcome of vaccination. Defence against pathogens is compromised mainly because of changes in adaptive immunity mediated by T and B lymphocytes; however, all components of the immune system are affected (Fig 1). Dissecting the crucial alter...

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic nonspecific intestinal inflammatory disease, including ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD). Its pathogenesis remains not yet clear. Current researchers believe that after environmental factors act on individuals with genetic susceptibility, an abnormal intestinal immune response is launched under stimulation of intestinal flora. However...

The porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) is a devastating viral disease affecting swine production, health and welfare throughout the world. A synergistic action of the innate and the adaptive immune system of the host is essential for mounting a durable protective immunity through vaccination. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the transcriptome profiles of perip...

Cancer specific immunity elicited with vaccines has traditionally focused on the activation of the CD8 cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL) often involving direct stimulation of immunity using HLA-class I binding peptide epitopes. Recently it has become clear that activation of the CTL immune effector arm alone is insufficient to mediate an anticancer response. A major problem is that CD8 T cells alone...

Pathogen recognition by Toll-like receptors (TLRs) on dendritic cells (DCs) leads to DC maturation and the initiation of adaptive immunity. Recent studies have shown that innate lymphocytes—natural killer (NK), natural killer T (NKT), and T cells—also trigger DC maturation. This interaction in turn expands and activates innate lymphocytes and initiates adaptive T cell immunity. Here, we comment...