2. A SMIDGEON ABOUT PROBABILITY AND EVENTS Wisdom ofttimes consists of knowing what to do next. – Herbert Hoover DEFINITIONS Experiment – any action or process that generates observations (e.g. flipping a coin) Trial – a single instance of an experiment (one flip of the coin) Outcome – the observation resulting from a trial (“heads”) Sample Space – the set of all possible outcomes of an experim...

some scientists are interesting to study in area of harvested ecological modelling. the harvested population dynamics is more realistic than other ecological models. in the present paper, some of the lotka-volterra predator-prey models have been considered. in the said models, existing species are harvested by constant or variable growth rates. the behavior of their solutions has been analyzed ...

The validity of ecological studies in epidemiology for inferring causal relationships has been widely challenged as observed associations could be biased by the Ecological Fallacy. We reconsider the important design components of ecological studies, and discuss the conditions that may lead to spurious associations. Ecological associations are useful and valid when the ecological exposures can b...

The validity of ecological studies in epidemiology for inferring causal relationships has been widely challenged as observed associations could be biased by the Ecological Fallacy. We reconsider the important design components of ecological studies, and discuss the conditions that may lead to spurious associations. Ecological associations are useful and valid when the ecological exposures can b...

We analyzed a simple genetic model of ecological character displacement in a fluctuating environment. Character states of two identical, competing species were determined by a single-gene, two-allele model. In each generation, the carrying capacity of different segments of a uniform resource spectrum fluctuated randomly. Interand intraspecific exploitation competition reduced litnesses of simil...

Context is a vague notion with numerous building blocks making language test scores inferences quite convoluted. This study has made use of a model of item responding that has striven to theorize the contextual infrastructure of differential item functioning (DIF) research and help specify the sources of DIF. Two steps were taken in this research: first, to identify DIF by gender grouping via l...

Some scientists are interesting to study in area of harvested ecological modelling. The harvested population dynamics is more realistic than other ecological models. In the present paper, some of the Lotka-Volterra predator-prey models have been considered. In the said models, existing species are harvested by constant or variable growth rates. The behavior of their solutions has been analyzed ...

© The Ecological Society of America www.frontiersinecology.org T greatest challenges in ecology and evolution are in understanding how physical and biological processes that play out over extensive spatial, temporal, and taxonomic scales interact to affect the dynamics of genes, phenotypes, populations, and ecosystems. The fact that many biological properties are “scale-dependent” has been reco...