In terms of the framing and focus of research, recent years have seen a theoretical shift in many areas of the social sciences towards a recognition of some of the limits of currently dominant epistemologies. ‘Recognising limits’ is not meant here only in the sense that there will always be limits to the results of all processes of abstraction aimed at explanation. In addition, research is domi...

The “sciences of the artificial” deal with synthesized things which may imitate natural things, which have functions and goals and which are usually discussed in terms of imperatives as well as descriptives. Imitation with computer is now usually termed simulation and is used to understand the imitated system (Simon, 1996). Artificiality has invaded science over the last thirty years, and physi...

In the series Basic Concepts in Social Sciences a list of 79 concepts was given. The last part of that list consisted of 10 concepts concerning measures. Verbal definitions of these measures were considered as a preparation of mathematical definitions. In this paper these mathematical definitions will be discussed.