Searching for new ways to use existing ideas is an important aspect of innovation and can involve a great deal of ex ante uncertainty. The paradox is that the outcomes of this search often seem obvious when viewed in hindsight. I examine the degree to which hindsight bias affects the evaluation of obviousness in the patent examination process. If examiners are relying only on ex ante knowledge ...

The secretion of proteins that damage host tissue is well established as integral to the infectious processes of many bacterial pathogens. However, recent advances in our understanding of the activity of toxins suggest that the attributes we have assigned to them from early in vitro experimentation have misled us into thinking of them as merely destructive tools. Here, we will discuss the multi...