followed by a stepwise progression to stronger centrally acting analgesics [5] . Analgesics can be broadly categorized as: non-opioid, opioid and adjuvant analgesics. Non-opioids may be used in combination with opioids for their opioid-sparing effect, permitting the use of lower doses of opioids [6] . Opioids are primarily used to treat moderate to severe pain that has not responded to non-opio...

conclusions pain management in patients with liver dysfunction is always challenging to physicians because of the adverse reactions of drugs, especially opioids. opioids should be used cautiously since they can cause sedation, constipation and sudden encephalopathy effects. since the clearance of these drugs in patients with hepatic insufficiency is decreased, the initial dose must be decreased...

tramadol is a synthetic analgesic of opioids which has more flexible mechanisms of action than typical opioids. since it has been reported in previous study that typical opioids like morphine can affect the bone homeostasis, it is worthwhile to examine the effects of tramadol on tooth movement. in this study we investigated effects of tramadol on orthodontic tooth movement in rats.30 male wista...

OBJECTIVES Most US studies of national trends in medical and nonmedical use of prescription opioids have focused on adults. Given the limited understanding in these trends among adolescents, we examine national trends in the medical and nonmedical use of prescription opioids among high school seniors between 1976 and 2015. METHODS The data used for the study come from the Monitoring the Futur...

introduction failed back surgery syndrome (fbss) is an increasing cause of chronic pain in most countries. this poses high costs to both patients and national health organizations. case presentation in this report, multimodal pain management based on daily high-dose oxycodone/naloxone (oxn 180/90 mg) led to reduced patient's pain score and improved quality of life. conclusions oxycodone/naloxon...