The transition from wakefulness to sleep represents the most conspicuous change in behavior and the level of consciousness occurring in the healthy brain. It is accompanied by similarly conspicuous changes in neural dynamics, traditionally exemplified by the change from "desynchronized" electroencephalogram activity in wake to globally synchronized slow wave activity of early sleep. However, un...

This review covers recent advances in our knowledge of the role of a group of the most prominent neurotransmitters and neuromodulators in the field of the immune reactions of the body. The neurotransmitters and neuromodulators covered are the three catecholamines (epinephrine, noradrenaline and dopamine), serotonin, acetylcholine (both nicotinic and muscarinic functions), and histamine.

In this chapter we introduce current knowledge on neuromodulation at the various levels of analysis on which neuromodulator action becomes apparent. These span from animal behavior, to biomechanics and musculature, to neural networks, single neurons and, finally, intracellular signal cascades, genes, and protein synthesis. In contrast to neurohormones that are released into the hemolymph, neuro...

Neuromodulators such as serotonin, oxytocin and testosterone play an important role in social behavior. Studies examining the effects of these neuromodulators and others on social cognition and behavior (and their neural underpinnings) are becoming increasingly common. Here, we provide an overview of methodological considerations for those wishing to evaluate or conduct empirical studies of neu...

Neuromodulators such as serotonin, oxytocin and testosterone play an important role in social behavior. Studies examining the effects of these neuromodulators and others on social cognition and behavior (and their neural underpinnings) are becoming increasingly common. Here, we provide an overview of methodological considerations for those wishing to evaluate or conduct empirical studies of neu...