In this study we introduce new hypothesis into the anatomical-structure, head, and neck, neuro-embryology, nerves muscles, followed by physiologic-variants, operational / surgical implications considerations then lastly clinical significancy of study. The wound/damage to cervical altruistic ganglia can elicit syndrome-of-Horner, which is ipsilateral ptosis, miosis, also facial scrub—anhidrosis....

Orexins/hypocretins are synthesized in neurons of the perifornical, dorsomedial, lateral, and posterior hypothalamus. A loss of hypocretin neurons has been found in human narcolepsy, which is characterized by sudden loss of muscle tone, called cataplexy, and sleepiness. The normal functional role of these neurons, however, is unclear. The medioventral medullary region, including gigantocellular...

[Purpose] The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of functional electrical stimulation on muscle tone and stiffness in stroke patients. [Subjects and Methods] Ten patients who had suffered from stroke were recruited. The intervention was functional electrical stimulation on ankle dorsiflexor muscle (tibialis anterior). The duration of functional electrical stimulation was 30 minu...

Microinjection of NMDA and non-NMDA agonists into the same sites in pontomedullary motor "inhibitory" areas of decerebrate animals produced opposite effects on muscle tone. Microinjection of non-NMDA agonists into peri-locus coeruleus alpha (peri-LC alpha) and nucleus magnocellularis (NMC) suppressed muscle tone, while injection of NMDA agonists at the same sites increased muscle tone and produ...

The aim of the present study was to localize the dopamine receptors involved in the regulation of muscle tone. A strategy was used whereby the effects on muscle tone of injecting the irreversible dopamine receptor antagonist N-ethoxycarbonyl-2-ethoxy-1,2-dihydroquinoline (EEDQ) in discrete brain regions were assessed. Increases in muscle tone were measured as changes in electromyographic activi...

“Muscle tone” is a clinically important and widely used term palpation crucial skill for its diagnosis. However, the defined rather vaguely, not measurable objectively. Therefore, several methods have been developed to measure muscle tone objectively, in terms of biomechanical properties muscle. This article aims summarize these approaches. Through database searches, we identified those studies...