The striatum consists of GABAergic projection neurons and various types of interneurons. Despite their relative scarcity, these interneurons play a key role in information processing in the striatum. One such class of interneurons is the cholinergic tonically active neurons (TANs). In the dorsal striatum, TANs are traditionally considered to be responsive to events of motivational significance....

According to established notion, one of the major angiogenesis-inducing factors, pro-matrix metalloproteinase-9 (proMMP-9), is supplied to the tumor microenvironment by tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs). Accumulated evidence, however, indicates that tumor-associated neutrophils (TANs) are also critically important for proMMP-9 delivery, especially at early stages of tumor development. To clar...

The histologic presence of macrophages (tumor-associated macrophages, TAMs) and neutrophils (tumor-associated neutrophils, TANs) has been linked to poor clinical outcomes for solid tumors. The exact mechanism for this association with worsened prognosis is unclear. It has been theorized that TAMs are immunomodulated to an alternatively activated state and promote tumor progression. Similarly, T...

The basal ganglia have been implicated in motor planning and motor learning. In the study reported here, we directly tested for response plasticity in striatal neurons of macaque monkeys undergoing Pavlovian conditioning. To focus the study, we recorded from the tonically active neurons (TANs) of the striatum, which are known to respond to conditioned sensory stimuli that signal reward delivery...

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An essential component of skill acquisition is learning the environmental conditions in which that skill is relevant. This article proposes and tests a neurobiologically detailed theory of how such learning is mediated. The theory assumes that a key component of this learning is provided by the cholinergic interneurons in the striatum known as tonically active neurons (TANs). The TANs are assum...

The goal of this study is to assess the function of tonically active neurons (TANs) of the striatum and their malfunction in the parkinsonian state. We recorded multiple spike trains of striatal TANs and pallidal neurons, which are the main target of striatal projections. Recordings were performed in two vervet monkeys before and after the induction of tremulous parkinsonism by systemic injecti...

Stochastic activity networks (SANs) are a well-known petri net-based formalism used for the performance and dependability modeling of a wide range of systems. On the other hand, the growing complexity of timed systems makes it imperative to apply formal analysis techniques in the early stages of the system’s development. Finding a suitable framework for the modeling, evaluation, and verificatio...

Huge amounts of money are spent every year on unlearning programs--in drug-treatment facilities, prisons, psychotherapy clinics, and schools. Yet almost all of these programs fail, since recidivism rates are high in each of these fields. Progress on this problem requires a better understanding of the mechanisms that make unlearning so difficult. Much cognitive neuroscience evidence suggests tha...