The geomagnetic field prevents energetic particles, such as galactic cosmic rays, from directly interacting with the Earth’s atmosphere. is not static but constantly changing, and over last 100,000 years, several excursions occurred. During excursions, strength significantly decreased morphology strongly influenced by non-dipole components, more ray particles can access Paleomagnetic models pro...

Abstract Since the 1919 foundation of International Association Volcanology and Chemistry Earth’s Interior (IAVCEI), fields volcano seismology acoustics have seen dramatic advances in instrumentation techniques, undergone paradigm shifts understanding volcanic seismo-acoustic source processes internal structure. Some early twentieth-century volcanological studies gave equal emphasis to barograp...

The creation of this Association stands out as one of the most important landmarks in the history of British medicine. To appreciate its importance and significance we have to remember the state of affairs previous to its conception. The great hospitals and medical schools scattered throughout the country lived largely isolated existences. Even in the large cities there was a minimum of contact...

The Department of Orthopaedic Surgery at the University of Malaya (in Singapore) was established in 1952. Prior to this, the teaching of Orthopaedic Surgery at the University was undertaken by the Department of Surgery under the Professor of Surgery and Professor of Clinical Surgery. From a course consisting of 15 weekly classes on fractures for 18 undergraduates in the late 1930s, and the clin...

centennial of the entire APS family of journals. APS was one of the earliest national biological societies in America and also one of the first to have its own journal (4). Although for its first sixteen years AJP was owned by its editor, William T. Porter, Porter published the journal at the request of APS and under contract to APS. By 1914, APS had assumed full ownership and management. The h...

It is a particular pleasure professionally and personally to be able to congratulate the British Journal of Ophthalmology on successfully reaching its 100 year anniversary. What a wonderful achievement. I first learnt about the Journal nearly 50 years ago at the very start of my career in ophthalmology. While the BMJ was called the BMJ, the BJO was The British Journal. I remember with great pri...

Charles Darwin (1809–1882) was born two centuries ago. The Origin of Species was published in 1859, 150 yr ago. The theory of biological evolution by natural selection, as first proposed by Darwin, is the central organizing principle of biology. Indeed, as the great evolutionist Theodosius Dobzhansky asserted in 1973 in an address to the American Association of Biology Teachers, ‘‘Nothing in bi...