A primary goal of clinical practice is to respect patient autonomy. To promote this goal for patients who have lost the ability to make their own decisions, commentators recommend that surrogates make their treatment decisions based on the substituted judgment standard. This standard is commonly interpreted as directing surrogates to make the decision the patient would have made in the circumst...

The inheritance problem can be simply stated: for any instantiation of an inheritance network , say a speciic hierarchy ? nd a conclusion set for ?. In other words nd out what is logically entailed by ?. This can be done in two ways: either by deening a deductive or proof theoretic deenition to determine what paths are entailed by a network; or by translating the individual links in the network...

The transition from the industrial age and the growing impact of the global economy on human life which has led to rapid expansion of western urban design culture in countries like Iran, are among the reasons why nowadays there is only a memory left in our minds of our traditional cities. "Urban identity" is one of the most important and most controversial issues among urban designers and other...