Please cite this article in press as: M. Shevc Comput. (2009), doi:10.1016/j.imavis.2008 Perception–action (PA) architectures are capable of solving a number of problems associated with artificial cognition, in particular, difficulties concerned with framing and symbol grounding. Existing PA algorithms tend to be ‘horizontal’ in the sense that learners maintain their prior percept–motor compete...