Abstract This paper analyzes three formal models of Transformer encoders that differ in the form their self-attention mechanism: unique hard attention (UHAT); generalized (GUHAT), which generalizes UHAT; and averaging (AHAT). We show UHAT GUHAT Transformers, viewed as string acceptors, can only recognize languages complexity class AC0, recognizable by families Boolean circuits constant depth po...

This paper aims to portray the appropriateness of test items in language tests according Bloom's Taxonomy. Thirty written created by EFL lecturers were analyzed. Document analysis was applied, data categorized and examined. In for remembering, ‘crucial questions finding specific examples or data, general concepts ideas, abstracting themes comprehension test. Completing particular projects solve...

The Parallel Object-Oriented language POOL integrates object-oriented characteristics with synchronous communication among objects. A novel formal description of POOL is given here. The description is written using Mosses' action notation style of formal speciication. It is then, compared with other formal speciications of the language. Understandability, extensibility and modularity are the ma...

OnTrack automates workflows for railway verification, starting with graphical scheme plans and finishing with automatically generated formal models set up for verification. OnTrack is grounded on an established domain specification language (DSL) and is generic in the formal specification language used. Using a DSL allows the formulation of abstractions that work for verification in several for...

This paper presents a formal model of language acquisition that, in addition to meeting the traditional learnability condition, makes time-course predictions about child language development. We view language acquisition as a population of human grammars, made available by UG, compete in a selectionist process. Selection is made possible by the variational properties of individual grammars; spe...

This article sets forth a rigorous approach to the concept of a ‘design pattern language’. We present a method of using a programming language to manipulate constructs of ordinary OOP language (such as classes and relations). We show that the specification of many design patterns can phrased as algorithms in this metaprogramming environment. The advantage is in delivering a precise method of de...

A common critique of formal methods in software development practise is, that they are not readily understandable and thus not widely used (see for instance [Nam97]). The Java Modeling Language (JML) was created in an attempt to bridge that gap. By building upon the syntax of Java it is meant to be easily accessible to the common user – who might not be skilled in formal modeling. Due to this a...

Since the 1930s, the subject of formal language theory, also known as automata theory, has been developed by computer scientists, linguists and mathematicians. Formal languages (or simply languages) are sets of strings over finite sets of symbols, called alphabets, and various ways of describing such languages have been developed and studied, including regular expressions (which " generate " la...

This paper presents a systematic consideration of the major issues involved in translation of executable design level software specification languages to directly model-checkable formal languages. These issues are considered under the framework of integrated model/property translation and include: (1) translator architecture; (2) semantics translation from a software language to a formal langua...

This paper presents a pilot study to test plans for an empirical study, which will compare the comprehensibility of two specifications: a formal specification and an informal specification. The two documents used in the pilot study implemented the same logic, namely a portion of the Irish Electoral system. The “informal specification” was taken directly from the legal definition of the count ru...