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Do parents defend their offspring whenever necessary, and do self-sacrificing parents really exist? Studies recognized that parent defence is dynamic, mainly depending on the threat predators pose. In this context, parental risk management should consider the threat to themselves and to their offspring. Consequently, the observed defence should be a composite of both risk components. Surprising...

When plants are attacked by pathogens, they defend themselves with an arsenal of defence mechanisms, both passive and active. The active defence responses, which require de novo protein synthesis, are regulated through a complex and interconnected network of signalling pathways that mainly involve three molecules, salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and ethylene (ET), and which results in ...

In the fi eld of cyber security, ill-defi ned concepts and inconsistently applied terminology are further complicating an already complex issue1. This causes diffi culties for policy-makers, strategists and academics. Using national cyber security strategies to support current literature, this paper undertakes three tasks with the goal of classifying and defi ning terms to begin the development...

Animal societies depend on effective defence of group resources. Defensive mechanisms can be costly and may constrain the evolution of social structure. We analysed how exocrine mechanisms of colony defence were affected by the evolution of social complexity and of nest architecture in paper wasps (Vespidae). Eusocial paper wasp species exhibit two discrete grades of eusociality, with new colon...

Plants activate direct and indirect defences in response to insect egg deposition. However, whether eggs can manipulate plant defence is unknown. In Arabidopsis thaliana, oviposition by the butterfly Pieris brassicae triggers cellular and molecular changes that are similar to the changes caused by biotrophic pathogens. In the present study, we found that the plant defence signal salicylic acid ...

RESEARCH SPECIALINTRODUCTION During the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan there have been major changes in the way we care for our battlefield casualties. Clinical Guidelines for Operations and BATLS have been updated and refined to offer best practiceand this practice is based on best evidence where available. This special edition of the journal focusses on how that evidence is generated, and ...

Polyclad flatworms are soft, juicy, and delicate worms. During evolution they had to evolve strategies to protect themselves from all the hungry reef animals (especially fish and crustacea) that might eat them. One general principle is camouflage which means in first line to become invisible by being exclusively active at night or by matching both the texture and the colour of the food they pre...

Since 2001 military nurses have successfully supported military operations in deployed field hospitals in both Iraq and Afghanistan. These deployments have presented unique challenges for military nurses. This article reviews the literature on the experience of nurses during these deployments and, using a thematic analysis approach, aims to understand their experience. The results provide an in...