We consider DoS attacks on servers in which attackers’ requests are indistinguishable from legitimate requests. Most current defenses against this class of attack rely on legitimate users in aggregate having more of some resource (CPU cycles, memory cycles, human attention, etc.) than attackers. A server so defended asks prospective clients to prove their legitimacy by spending some of this res...

Both the doctrines of non-retroactivity and legitimate expectation find their normative foundation on idea that legal norms administrative decisions should be stable predictable, thus allowing individual planning. This is problematic because protection planning does not fully explain prohibiting sense often infused in principle different degrees which retroactivity takes place. Also, extension ...

Abstract Scientific teleological explanations cite end states as causes to account for physical phenomena. Researchers in science education have noted that students can use ways are illegitimate, example, by implying inanimate objects acting intentionally. Despite such cases, several examples of legitimate explanation been described, and the explanatory form contexts biological has encouraged. ...