In this issue of the Causal, Casual, and Curious column, I compare several ways of extracting information from post-treatment variables and call attention to some peculiar relationships among them. In particular, I contrast do-calculus conditioning with counterfactual conditioning and discuss their interpretations and scopes of applications. These relationships have come up in conversations wit...

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) provide a cost-effective way for securing communications using public and insecure networks like the Internet. The main purpose of a VPN is to securely and transparently connect two or more remote networks to form virtually a single network, using centralized security policies for better management and protection. However, in certain scenarios, users may not requ...

In the mid-1980s the attention of economists has been directed again to problems of economic growth. Traditional Solovian growth theory based on the important role of investment has been implied a convergence of economies of different levels of development. But exactly this was unobservable in reality; on the contrary: differences between highly developed countries and those of the so-called th...

Background Association between casual and 24-h urinary sodium-to-potassium (Na/K) ratio is well recognized, although it has not been validated in diverse demographic groups. Our aim was to assess utility across and within populations of casual urine to estimate 24-h urinary Na/K ratio using data from the INTERSALT Study. Methods The INTERSALT Study collected cross-sectional standardized data ...

Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) [1] allow individuals and business to create and maintain secure communication channels between their own local networks using public and insecure networks, like Internet, instead of private and leased lines. The main purpose of a VPN is to securely and transparently connect two or more remote networks to form virtually a single network. Network architectures def...

In this paper we present a Gentzen system for reasoning with contrary-to-duty obligations. The intuition behind the is that special kind of normative exception. logical machinery to formalise idea taken from substructural logics and it based on definition new non-classical connective capturing notion reparational obligation. Then tested against well-known paradoxes.