We find strong evidence of monopoly legislative agenda control by government parties in the Bundestag. First, the government parties have near-zero roll rates, while the opposition parties are often rolled over half the time. Second, only opposition parties’ (and not government parties’) roll rates increase with the distances of each party from the floor median. Third, almost all policy moves a...

When and how do third-party actors—most prominently electoral commissions, courts, and observers—contribute to the integrity of the electoral process? We approach these questions by studying how third-party actors shape politicians’ incentives to comply with the outcomes of elections. Third parties are most beneficial in close elections, when the threat of a post-election confrontation alone fa...

Novel contract signing protocol based on the OTPK scheme were recommended. OTPK means one time password key. This recommended protocol capable will be brought into action only if one party fails to sign the to permit two parties to sign the matching contract and then those parties can exchange their digital signatures. The protocol proficient to ensure fairness in and it offers parties with gre...

A computation scheme among n parties is fair if no party obtains the computation result unless all other n− 1 parties obtain the same result. A fair computation scheme is optimistic if n honest parties can obtain the computation result without resorting to a trusted third party. We prove, for the first time, a tight lower bound on the message complexity of optimistic fair computation for n part...

In this paper, a new contract signing protocol is proposed based on the RSA signature scheme. The protocol will allow two parties to sign the same contract and then exchange their digital signatures. The protocol ensures fairness in that it offers parties greater security: either both parties receive each other's signatures or neither does. The protocol is based on offline Trusted Third Party (...

The fairness of data exchange becomes a key factor for the transaction over the Internet. To ensure the fairness of data exchange, the protocol needs a trusted third party be a judge when the dispute occurs, and has to give a guarantee to main parties during the data exchange. To eliminate the third party’s connectional time and enhance its security, a fair-exchange protocol based on off-line s...