This paper introduces and presents a first analysis of uniquely curated dataset misinformation, disinformation, rumors spreading on Twitter about the 2020 U.S. election. Previous research misinformation—an umbrella term for false misleading content—has largely focused either broad categories, using finite set keywords to cover complex topic, or few, case studies, with increased precision but li...

Abstract Repeat offenders receive longer sentences than first in virtually every modern jurisdiction. Such prior-record enhancements are politically popular. Scholars more divided, especially regarding severe enhancements. Retributivists have long disagreed about which enhancements, if any, morally justifiable and on what basis. This article advances the debate, offering lessons for retributivi...