The signal hypothesis, that specific sequences at the N terminus of newly synthesized proteins direct their translocation across cell membranes, was first proposed in 1971 (1), with experimental support fortheeukaryoticendoplasmicreticulumin1975(2).Aspateofpapersin the late 1970s explored the implications of this hypothesis for protein translocation in different cell types and across different ...

Gram-negative bacteria can resist antibiotics by changing the permeability via their outer membrane. These have a complex cell envelope that incorporates an membrane separating periplasm from external environment. This contains many protein channels, also known as porins or nanopores, which mainly allow influx of hydrophilic compounds, including antibiotics. One probable way may possibly develo...