Kainate receptors (KARs), together with AMPA and NMDA, are typically described as ionotropic glutamate receptors. The functions of KARs have begun to be elucidated only in the last decade. Although some the actions of KARs are classically ionotropic, surprisingly others seem to involve the activation of second-messenger cascades and invoke metabotropic roles for this type of glutamate receptor....

Knowledge representation of reasoning processes is a central notion in the field of artificial intelligence, especially for knowledge-based agents, because such representation facilitates knowledge of action outcomes necessary for optimum performance by problem-solving agents in complex situations. Logic is the primary vehicle by which knowledge is represented in knowledge-based agents. It invo...

Vaccination is one of the most efficient strategies for the prevention of infectious diseases. Although safer, subunit vaccines are poorly immunogenic and for this reason the use of adjuvants is strongly recommended. Since their discovery in the beginning of the 20th century, adjuvants have been used to improve immune responses that ultimately lead to protection against disease. The choice of t...

Considering the instability of nonlinear dynamics, the deductive inference rule Modus ponens itself is not enough to guarantee the validness of reasoning sequence in the real physical world, and from similar cause cannot gain similar result. Some kind of stability hypothesis should be added in order to draw meaningful conclusion. So the uncertainty of deductive inference appears the same as tha...