Ionizing radiation has long been known to produce detrimental biological effects. Although these harmful effects are the results of high doses of exposure, some other maladies such as mutation and cancer seems  to be induced at low doses of exposure. In recent decades, however, some pioneer scientists have indicated that ionizing radiation like many other essential agents has toxic effects  ...

In experimental games, we observe the following phenomena: (1) many subjects cooperate contrary to their material interest, (2) they cooperate in a reciprocal manner, (3) subjects often punish those others who behave unkindly, and (4) previous history usually influences subjects’ choices. We propose a simple game-theoretical model to account for these and other experimental phenomena, and compa...

The coronavirus 2019 (COVID 19) pandemic has been a worldwide catastrophe. Four centuries after the plague pandemic, this highly contagious RNA virus ( SARS-CoV-2) become nightmare due to its relentless spread, infecting millions of people with an unpredictably higher fatality, and sequelae yet follow. This viral disease devastated world population in many ways. It affected all stages life, sta...

A method is described for detecting causal relationships among social phenomena in the natural setting. Based primarily upon obtaining an association between two factors, one measured earlier in time than the other, and controlling the influences of outside factors, it considers causality to be a matter of degree and allows for symmetrical causal relationships. A study of organizational behavio...