Mucosal immunity consists of innate and adaptive immune responses which can be influenced by systemic immunity. Despite having been the subject of intensive studies, it is not fully elucidated what exactly occurs after HIV contact with the female genital tract mucosa. The sexual route is the main route of HIV transmission, with an increased risk of infection in women compared to men. Several ch...

The effects of attenuated rubella virus infection upon cell-mediated immunity of human volunteers were studied. The volunteers received the vaccine either by nose drops or by the subcutaneous route. Changes in cell-mediated immunity in terms of delayed cutaneous sensitivity to recall antigens, phytohemagglutination stimulation, and spontaneous migration inhibitory factor-like activity were stud...

An infection model for Mycobacterium bovis in African buffaloes, Syncerus caffer, was developed, using the intratonsilar route of inoculation. Two groups of 11 buffaloes each, aged approximately 18 months, were infected with either 3.2 x 10(2) cfu (low dose) or 3 x 10(4) cfu (high dose) of M. bovis strain isolated from a buffalo. A control group of six buffaloes received saline via the same rou...

blood and enter the bronchi of the lungs. There they are coughed up through the trachea into the throat and swallowed. This is referred to as the pulmonary route of infection and historically had been considered the only route of hookworm infection. In the small and large intestine the worms attach to the wall of the intestine and suck blood, mature, and lay eggs, which pass out with the feces ...

Previous studies on inferring the origin of routing changes in the Internet are limited to failure events that generate a large number of routing changes. In this paper, we present a novel approach to origin inference of small failure events. Our scheme focuses on routing changes imposed on preferred paths of prefixes and not on transient paths triggered by path exploration. We first infer the ...

Pathogen entry route can have a strong impact on the result of microbial infections in different hosts, including insects. Drosophila melanogaster has been a successful model system to study the immune response to systemic viral infection. Here we investigate the role of the Toll pathway in resistance to oral viral infection in D. melanogaster. We show that several Toll pathway components, incl...