The economic and political processes taking place at the global level, aimed reducing negative impact of anthropogenic factor on environment, have a significant foreign domestic policy Russian Federation can serve both as basis for strengthening country’s international influence competitiveness, source serious conflicts. in arena within elite. As turning point that marked beginning new stage cl...

Self-adaptation is used in all main paradigms of evolutionary computation to increase efficiency. We claim that the basis of self-adaptation is the use of neutrality. In the absence of external control neutrality allows a variation of the search distribution without the risk of fitness loss.

Let be a binary relation in which is a real vector space of vector-valued discrete-time Ð ¤ ß Z Ñ Z stochastic processes with as the sequence of zero vectors. If satisfies four axioms, then ! Ð ¤ ß Z Ñ there are unique discount factors such that preferences regarding stochastic processes induce prefences among present value random vectors. Three of the axioms are familiar: weak ordering, contin...

Introduction To better understand biodiversity scaling, it may be useful to characterize the biodiversity scaling relationships that arise from the neutral perspective. This exercise will help in formulating quantitative null hypotheses for observed biodiversity scaling relationships. Here we use the term biodiversity to refer not only to species richness, but also to relative species abundance...

PERHAPS NO TECHNICAL TERM more aptly distinguishes psychoanalytic technique from other forms of psychotherapy than the word "neutrality." Yet, Freud didn't even introduce the term until 1915—some twenty years after his basic theory and treatment philosophy were established. Since its introduction in the last of Freud's six papers on technique, "Observations on Transference-Love" (1915), the app...

Ecologists now recognize that controversy over the relative importance of niches and neutrality cannot be resolved by analyzing species abundance patterns. Here, we use classical coexistence theory to reframe the debate in terms of stabilizing mechanisms (niches) and fitness equivalence (neutrality). The neutral model is a special case where stabilizing mechanisms are absent and species have eq...