We examine a hitherto unstudied debate, turning on the epistemology of value judgements, between Ashʿarīs and Baṣran Muʿtazilīs late eleventh twelfth centuries. Al-Ghazālī al-Rāzī countered Muʿtazilī ethical realism, here defended by al-Malāḥimī, developing an emotive subjectivism underpinned increasingly sophisticated psychological accounts motivation. Value they maintained, arise not from kno...

This inquiry examines the structure of knowledge nationalism. While numerous studies on nationalism focus nature and defining elements nations, this research explores discourse from a purely epistemological viewpoint asks two overarching questions: what are constitutive beliefs in these various theories how they structured? The first section outlines contemporary foundationalist argument analyz...

This paper proposes new semantics for propositional dynamic logic (PDL), replacing the standard relational semantics. Under these semantics, program execution is represented as fundamentally deterministic (i.e., functional), while nondeterminism emerges an epistemic relationship between agent and system: intuitively, nondeterministic outcomes of a given process are precisely those that cannot b...