We study how the concept of bounded synchronization delay is related to retrograde comma-free codes. Retrograde codes are a subclass of comma-free codes in which the dictionary of code words excludes not only overlaps of code words but also reversals of overlaps. We give a general upper bound on the maximum size of a retrograde comma-free distionary, provide a construction for a bounded synchro...

Chronic total occlusions of the superficial femoral artery occur in approximately 40% of patients with symptomatic peripheral arterial disease. When antegrade revascularization fails or is not feasible, a retrograde approach should be considered. This is usually via the popliteal or tibial vessels. Alternatively, transcollateral revascularization has been reported. This report describes the use...

Retrograde signaling from the postsynaptic cell to the presynaptic neuron is essential for the development, maintenance, and activity-dependent modification of synaptic connections. This review covers various forms of retrograde interactions at developing and mature synapses. First, we discuss evidence for early retrograde inductive events during synaptogenesis and how maturation of presynaptic...

BACKGROUND Retrograde ureteropyelography plays a vital role in imaging of the upper tract, particularly in aiding the diagnosis of upper tract urothelial cancers.1 Retrograde studies in theatre are often of inferior quality compared with those performed in the radiology department. Retrograde ureteric catheter placement in theatre is therefore followed by formal retrograde studies in the radiol...

Retrograde signals from postsynaptic targets are critical during development and plasticity of synaptic connections. These signals serve to adjust the activity of presynaptic cells according to postsynaptic cell outputs and to maintain synaptic function within a dynamic range. Despite their importance, the mechanisms that trigger the release of retrograde signals and the role of presynaptic cel...

Poxviruses such as Vaccinia virus (VACV) undertake a complex cytoplasmic replication cycle which involves morphogenesis through four distinct virion forms, and includes a crucial "wrapping" step whereby intracellular mature virions (IMVs) are wrapped in two additional membranes to form intracellular enveloped virions (IEVs). To determine if cellular retrograde transport pathways were required f...

In motile, eukaryotic cells, a variety of cell-associated material (collectively termed here as 'particles') continuously flows, relative to the substratum, from the front to the back of the extreme margin of the cell (termed the 'lamellipodium'). This retrograde particle flow, occurs both over the surface of, and inside the lamellipodium. Force to drive retrograde particle flow in lamellipodia...