BACKGROUND Modern clinical-research practice favors placebo controls over usual-care controls whenever a credible placebo exists. An unrecognized consequence of this preference is that clinicians are more limited in their ability to provide the benefits of the non-specific healing effects of placebos in clinical practice. METHODS We examined the issues in choosing between placebo and usual-ca...

To date, little research on pragmatic transfer has considered a multilingual situation where there is an interaction among three different languages spoken by one person. Of interest was whether pragmatic transfer of refusals among three languages spoken by the same person occurs from L1 and L2 to L3, L1 to L2 and then to L3 or from L1 and L1 (if there are more than one L1) to L2. This study ai...

Contextualist theories of utterance interpretation posit a process of free pragmatic enrichment that contributes ‘unarticulated constituents’ of the explicit content of utterances. In this paper, I address the main concern about this process, which is that it is not sufficiently constrained, and appears to allow for enrichments that clearly do not occur. One variety of this overgeneration objec...

For the Intentionalist, utterance content is wholly determined by a speaker’s meaning-intentions; sentence uttered serves merely to facilitate audience’s recovering these intentions. We argue that Intentionalists ought be Particularists, holding only “principles” of meaning recovery needed are those governing inferences best explanation; both defeasible and, in sense elaborated, variable. discu...

This  study  examined  the  effects  of  individual  difference  (ID)  factors  on  changing  pragmatic abilities  among  L2  learners  of  English.  Participants  were  48  Japanese  EFL  students  in  an English-medium  university  in  Japan.  They  completed  a  pragmatic  speaking  test  (k=12)  that assessed  their  ability  to  produce  two  speech  acts:  requests  and  opinions,  in  hi...

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