background and aim: it will be discussed about five mechanisms in relation to speech in noise perception; including neural encoding and decoding, centrifugal pathways, pitch perception, asymmetric sampling in time and cognitive skills. these mechanisms are related to each other and each is important to recognize speech in noise. in this article, we have tried to rely on the latest studies to de...

We established a new plant defense response assay using a transient expression system in rice protoplasts. The assay system sensitively detected defense induction by flagellin, which had previously been assigned to a specific elicitor. Our assay system provides a rapid and efficient way to dissect rice defense mechanisms.

In this issue of Neuron, Chakrabarty et al. (2015) and Guillot-Sestier et al. (2015) reveal that the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 inhibits Aβ clearance by microglia, worsening cognitive decline in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease (AD). These studies provide further support that pro-inflammatory signaling is an innate immune defense mechanism in AD.

Approaching psychological defense mechanisms from the perspective of an evolved strategy, it is proposed that there are two basic templates-dissociation and cognitive distortions. Frequently conceived of as pathological, these psychological phenomena actually constitute overlapping spectrums with milder manifestations being common and highly functional, and more severe variants less common and ...

The self-nonself discrimination is germline encoded for defense mechanisms, but it is somatically learned for the immune system and this is the fundamental difference between the two. When referring to the defense mechanisms of vertebrates, immunologists like to use the term "innate immune systems" to describe the germline encoded class of defense mechanism. It was the acquisition of a somatica...

Cellular senescence is a defense mechanism in response to molecular damage which accumulates with aging. Correspondingly, the number of senescent cells has been reported to be greater in older than in younger subjects and furthermore associates with age-related pathologies. Inter-individual differences exist in the rate at which a person ages (biological age). Here, we studied whether younger b...

Employing a method, described in an earlier publication, for testing the pneumococcidal activity of serum-leucocyte mixtures, a study has been made of the pneumococcus-destroying properties of the blood of a relatively susceptible animal, the rabbit, for pneumococci of low virulence for the species. It was found that rabbit serum-leucocyte mixtures possessed the power to kill avirulent pneumoco...

In order to reduce pollution and strive for a cleaner environment, significant efforts are being made to develop alternatives to synthetic pesticides for the control of plant diseases. A promising alternative is to stimulate the natural resistance of plants. Recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms of the expression of plant defense mechanisms when attacked by disease causing path...