ABSTRACT: Cardiac malformations are reported to be relatively rare in bovine species, with ventricular septal defects being the most common abnormality observed predominantly young calves. This report aims describe cardiac bovids and review literature related those this species. The necropsy reports of 1,783 were reviewed, 0.4% diagnosed a congenital defect. malformation detected study was defe...

Abstract Absences pose a dilemma for theories of causation. Allowing them to be causes seems make too permissive. Banning from being restrictive. An increasingly popular approach this is acknowledge that norms can affect which absences count as causes. In article, I distinguish between two influential implementations such ‘abnormality’ approaches and argue so-called ‘double-prevention mechanism...