Glyphosate showed a remarkable effect inducing the change of flower symmetry from the actinomorphic to the zygomorphic type in Petunia hybrida. Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] reduced the anthocyanin content and showed a weak inhibitory effect against phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity. L-2-Aminooxy-3-phenylpropionic acid (APA), an inhibitor of PAL activity, reduced the anthocya...

Flowers exhibit amazing morphological diversity in many traits, including their size. In addition to interspecific flower size differences, many species maintain significant variation in flower size within and among populations. Flower size variation can contribute to reproductive isolation of species and thus has clear evolutionary consequences. In this review we integrate information on flowe...

Species often interact indirectly with each other via their traits. There is increasing appreciation of trait-mediated indirect effects linking multiple interactions. Flowers interact with both pollinators and floral herbivores, and the flower-pollinator interaction may be modified by indirect effects of floral herbivores (i.e., florivores) on flower traits such as flower size attracting pollin...

Let T be an orientation-preserving Lipschitz expanding map of the circle T. A pre-image selector is a map τ : T → T with finitely many discontinuities, each of which is a jump discontinuity, and such that τ (x) ∈ T(x) for all x ∈ T. The closure of the image of a pre-image selector is called a flower, and a flower with p connected components is called a p-flower. We say that a real-valued Lipsch...

Relationships between flowers and pollinators are generally considered cases of mutualism since both agents gain benefits. Fine-tuned adaptations are usually found in the form of strict one-to-one coevolution between species. Many insect pollinators are, however, considered generalists, visiting numerous kinds of flowers, and many flower species (angiosperms) are also considered generalists, vi...

The phenological and ecological study on Punica granatum L., a cultivated and wild species found in outer Himalayan ranges and warm inner valleys (alt. 700 2700m), was carried out during April and May of 2006 and 2007 in Kathmandu Valley. The study covered blooming time, size of flower, its correlation and interaction with the visitors and pollinators. The prime pollinator was Apis cerena along...

In this paper, we handle a remote ikebana (i.e., flower arrangement) system with olfactory and haptic media. In the system, a teacher or a student can hold a flower, adjust the length of the held flower’s stem with a pair of scissors, and impale the flower on a flower pinholder in a 3-D virtual space. We investigate the influence of the size of smell space (defined as a sphere in which we can p...