The mediators of the weak force—the W and Z bosons—are both roughly 100 times more massive than the proton, while the photon, which mediates the electromagnetic force, is massless. Based on symmetry principles, one would have expected the W , Z, and photon (collectively called gauge bosons) to all be massless. In order to generate the required symmetry breaking, one must invent a particular set...

According to modern physics, the mediators for all the fundamental forces of nature have spin S ≤ 2: photon for electrodynamics (S = 1), gluons for strong interactions (S = 1), bosons for the weak force (S = 1) and gravitons for the gravitational force (S = 2). Why? We show that the demand that the equations of a fundamental field are consistent in the classical limit (when quantum effects are ...

Elementary particle aspects using beams from accelerators and cosmic rays are compared. An important feature in high energy physics is particle identification in the final state. This technique is used to describe global features of ee-annihilations such as multiplicities and multiplicity distributions of charged hadrons and the relative fractions of pions, kaons and protons. Also the character...

A demonstration that the observed neutrinos are not Majorana particles Abstract It is shown that Majorana neutrinos cannot couple vectorially to the neutral-current SU(2) L x U(1) gauge field of the standard model. The absence of physics beyond the standard model (in particular Higgs-field configurations which lead to Majorana mass terms) is not assumed for this argument. Since the existence of...

Since our understanding of both general relativity and the standard model of elementary particles either with or without supersymmetry is based on singular La-grangians, whose associated Hamiltonian formalism requires Dirac-Bergmann theory of constraints[1], it is very difficult to identify which are the physical degrees of freedom to be used in the description and interpretation of the fundame...

Hypothetical interactions of Yukawaand power-types have been discussed actively in recent years (for a collection of references on this subject, see [1]). They may be considered as specific corrections to the classical gravitational force at small distances [2]. An alternative interpretation comes from the elementary particle physics. According to the unified gauge theories, supersymmetry and s...

A quantum knot model of mesons and baryons is established. This quantum knot model is derived from a quantum gauge model which is similar to the QCD gauge model. We first establish a knot model of the π mesons. We show that the π mesons are modeled by the prime knot 41 (which is assigned with the prime number 3). We show that the knot model of the π meson gives the strong interaction for the fo...