This objective of this study is how grammar is implemented in the brain, with special attention to a neurotransmitter dopamine. Among numerous kinds of molecules known to exist in the nervous system, several molecules are known to function as “neurotransmitters”, which mediate gaps between neurons (i.e., synapses) when a neuron transmits signals to another. In this study, a neurotransmitter dop...

Home based objective measures of bradykinesia and dyskinesia will be important in managing Parkinsons Disease (PD). The Aim of this paper was to further validate the Parkinsons Kinetigraph system as a tool for measuring bradykinesia and dyskinesia by examining its capacity capture the effect of therapeutic interventions, detect bradykinesia and asymmetry in a newly diagnosed patients, and corre...

Parkinson's disease (PD) affects >1 million Americans and is marked by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. PD has been linked to two causative factors: genetic risks (hereditary PD) and environmental toxins (idiopathic PD). In recent years, considerable effort has been devoted to the development of a Drosophila model of human PD that might be useful for examining the cellu...

Abstract Parkinson’s disease is an age-associated neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons from midbrain. Epidemiological studies have implicated exposures to environmental toxins like herbicide paraquat as major contributors etiology in both mammalian and invertebrate models. We employed a paraquat-induced model Drosophila inexpensive vivo platfo...

ABSTRACTParkinson’s disease (PD) is a neuropathological and debilitating disorder involving the degeneration of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons. Neuroprotective effect of hesperetin has already been reported, therefore, this study examined whether the administration of this flavonoid would attenuate behavioral abnormalities in an experimental model of PD in rat. For this purpose, unilateral ...

1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP(+)) is selectively toxic to dopaminergic neurons and has been studied extensively as an etiologic model of Parkinson's disease (PD) because mitochondrial dysfunction is implicated in both MPP(+) toxicity and the pathogenesis of PD. MPP(+) can inhibit mitochondrial complex I activity, and its toxicity has been attributed to the subsequent mitochondrial depolariza...

As one of the model organisms of Parkinson's disease (PD) research, the zebrafish has its advantages, such as the 87% homology with human genome and transparent embryos which make it possible to observe the development of dopaminergic neurons in real time. However, there is no midbrain dopaminergic system in zebrafish when compared with mammals, and the location and projection of the dopaminerg...

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons. While neuronal dysfunction central to PD, astrocytes also play important roles, both positive and negative, such roles have not yet been fully explored. This literature review serves highlight these how properties can be used increase neuron survivability. Astrocytes normally protective f...

OFF-L-dopa dyskinesias have been a surprising side-effect of intrastriatal foetal ventral mesencephalic transplantation in patients with Parkinson's disease. It has been proposed that excessive and unregulated dopaminergic stimulation of host post-synaptic striatal neurons by the grafts could be responsible for these dyskinesias. To address this issue we transplanted foetal dopaminergic neurons...