Although the development of modern medicine has helped us detect and treat diseases better than in the past, especially in the field of surgery; the history of medicine may be a trigger that can help us use neglected aspects of prior knowledge for the advancement of modern-day science. Since historical papers that have specifically focused on anorectal diseases are rare, but those that exist co...

There is no description of modernity without functional differentiation. The distinction of function systems such as economy, science, art, or religion, is a key to modernity. Modern science, however, applies and implies rather than studies functional differentiation without providing exact definitions of function systems or investigating how many of these systems actually exist. The present ar...

presented and developed in a literary way—that is, embedded in a complex human situation replete with highly charged emotions. The emotional and sometimes ambiguous context that makes these stories so pedagogically useful, however, makes some ethicists uneasy. They argue that the attention given to pain, suffering, and emotion in such literary cases can distract readers from the abstract reason...

the human knowledge on orthopedics traces back to dawn of the medical history. during the history of medicine, several scholars including persian scientists investigated orthopedics and contributed to its flowering. abu ali al-hussain ibn abdullah ibn-sina is a great persian physician whose opinions on various aspects of medicine, including the science of orthopedics, are so remarkable. in this...

throughout history, there have always been different opinions about the necessity and methods of contraception in different cultures. persian medical scientists in the medieval era illustrated different contraceptive methods in their manuscripts. avicenna, for example, discussed different types of contraceptive methods in canon, one of the most important medical books written in the 10th centur...

On November 27, 2001, the Supreme Court ruled in Chickasaw v. United States that Native American gaming (NAG) firms are subject to federal excise and occupational taxes. Prior to the decision, these firms had been exempt from all federal taxation. We hypothesize that Chickasaw improves the competitive position of publicly traded gaming firms and their suppliers by leveling the playing field for...