Alginates are widely used in tissue engineering technologies, e.g., in cell encapsulation, in drug delivery and various immobilization procedures. The success rates of these studies are highly variable due to different degrees of tissue response. A cause for this variation in success is, among other factors, its content of inflammatory components. There is an urgent need for a technology to tes...

introduction : the innate immune system as the first line of defense against the pathogens recognizes pathogen-associated molecular patterns (pamps) by toll-like receptors (tlrs). interaction of bacterial pamps by tlrs results in activation of innate and acquired immunity. fimh adhesin, a minor component of type 1 fimbriae encoded by uropathogenic escherichia coli (upec) is a pamp of tlr4 that ...

What are they? Tolls are a family of transmembrane receptors that play an essential role in sensing infection in mammals and insects. When Tolls bind to their ligands, they induce signaling pathways that lead to the elimination of the infecting pathogen. What do they look like? Tolls have a large extracellular region composed of leucine-rich repeats, and a cytoplasmic signaling domain. The intr...

Innate immune recognition is a second protective mechanism implicating immune cells and secreted mediators. Its under the control of cells carrying receptors for recognition of foreign antigens (PRRs: pathogen recognition receptors) such as macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils, mastocytes, epithelial cells, NK cells, and fibroblasts which can link mi‐ crobial structures (PAMPS: pathogen as...

The recognition of PAMPs by TLRs initiates the induction of inflammatory responses in the host cells through activation of signal transduction pathways mediated by transcription factor (nuclear factor-κB, NF-κB). Considering TLRs expressed in human cells TLR1, TLR2, TLR4, TLR5, and TLR6 are positioned near trans-membrane domains and are vital to the defense response of cells against external pa...

  Introduction : The innate immune system as the first line of defense against the pathogens recognizes pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by Toll-Like Receptors (TLRs). Interaction of bacterial PAMPs by TLRs results in activation of innate and acquired immunity. FimH adhesin, a minor component of type 1 fimbriae encoded by Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPEC) is a PAMP of TLR4 tha...

Filoviruses, marburgvirus (MARV) and ebolavirus (EBOV), are causative agents of highly lethal hemorrhagic fever in humans. MARV and EBOV share a common genome organization but show important differences in replication complex formation, cell entry, host tropism, transcriptional regulation, and immune evasion. Multifunctional filoviral viral protein (VP) 35 proteins inhibit innate immune respons...

BACKGROUND The filamentous oomycete plant pathogen Phytophthora infestans causes late blight, an economically important disease, on members of the nightshade family (Solanaceae), such as the crop plants potato and tomato. The related plant Nicotiana benthamiana is a model system to study plant-pathogen interactions, and the susceptibility of N. benthamiana to Phytophthora species varies from su...

BACKGROUND The endometrium is commonly infected with bacteria leading to severe disease of the uterus in cattle and humans. The endometrial epithelium is the first line of defence for this mucosal surface against bacteria and Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a critical component of the innate immune system for detection of pathogen associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). Antimicrobial peptides, ac...