This is an account of reading instruction in the twentieth century. It will end, as do most essays written in the final year of any century, with predictions about the future. My hope is to provide an account of the past and present of reading instruction that will render predictions about the future transparent. Thus I begin with a tour of the historical pathways that have led us, at century’s...

Two recent TICS articles [1,2] converge on the idea that in mature reading written words are coded by an abstract neural representation comprising either “open bigrams” [2] or bigrams in combination with larger units [1]. For example, the input TAKE is represented by the units TA TK TE AK AE and KE. However, open bigrams do not map onto phonology. Because phonology is fundamental in beginning a...

It has been shown that abilities in spatial learning and memory are adversely affected by aging. The present study was conducted to investigate whether increasing age has equal consequences for all types of spatial learning or impacts certain types of spatial learning selectively. Specifically, two major types of spatial learning, exploratory navigation and map reading, were contrasted. By comb...

LEARNING HISTORY THINKING LIKE A HISTORIAN: CRITICAL READING, MIND-MAP, AND CREATIVE WRITINGThe study of history should not rely on only one source or authoritative narrative. The nature which necessitates a postulate that once historical event is written, it immediately becomes something subjective. It certain written absolutely influenced by the subjectivity author. Therefore, learning does r...

We present a sound and complete graphical criterion for reading dependencies from the minimal undirected independence map of a graphoid that satisfies weak transitivity. We argue that assuming weak transitivity is not too restrictive.

The Escherichia coli lytB gene, which is involved in penicillin tolerance and control of the stringent response, was identified as a previously described open reading frame designated orf316 located in the ileS-lsp operon (0.4 min on the linkage map).