We propose that what makes an organism is nearly complete cooperation, with strong control of intraorganism conflicts, and no affiliations above the level of the organism as unified as those at the organism level. Organisms can be made up of like units, which we call fraternal organisms, or different units, making them egalitarian organisms. Previous definitions have concentrated on the factors...

This history presents a review of International Mycological Association activities, its international congresses, and its relationships with regional mycological associations as well as with international organizations of other scientific disciplines. The IMA was organized in 1971 during the First Mycological Congress (IMC-1) convened at Exeter, U.K. In the period 1971 to 2010, nine internation...

Continuing professional development (CPD) or continuing professional education (CPE) refers to lifelong learning, which is done for professionals in order to update specialized knowledge, skills, attitudes, ethical issues, and moral values after admission to a particular profession. Therefore, due to the increasing growth of knowledge in all areas of specialization, particularly in the field of...

The professionalization of attention to the needs of children, which has taken place during the course of the twentieth century in areas such as health, education, law and social assistance, underwent an important conceptual development in the first decades of the twentieth century. In the field of social assistance, the structuring of the area of social services marked the introduction of a ne...

Acknowledgment The current work was carried out at the Department of Biological Chemistry of the University of Konstanz during the period of 1999-2002. Working there was at the same time instructional and fun, both of which being constantly upheld by my supervisor Prof. Dr. Volker Ullrich. Besides instructions, I like to thank him for his excellent support and working facilities he provided. I ...

Assessing the variety and quality of the articles presented in the biennial national congresses of physiology and pharmacology is important to investigators in these fields. Analytic assessment of these presentations are of great use to know the stand points of physiology and pharmacology departments in different universities, and also can be informative for policy makers in higher education...

During the past 50 years, the participation of women in medicine has increased dramatically. However, this encouraging influx has not been accompanied by equality for male and female faculty in terms of rank attainment, leadership roles and salaries. There is considerable evidence that women are still under-represented in the higher echelons of academic medicine, either as heads of departments,...