this essay with a historical look reviews the use of chemical weapons in the world wars i and ii and other limited wars before this imposed war against iran. then, it explains the international regulations on prohibition and non-proliferation of chemical weapons. regarding iran-iraq war, the use of these weapons against iranian military forces and civilians as well as iraqi people is discussed....

What is the relationship between the type of training combatants receive upon recruitment into an armed group and their propensity to abuse civilians in civil war? Does military training or political training prevent or exacerbate the victimization of civilians by armed non-state actors? While the literature on civilian victimization has expanded rapidly, few studies have examined the correlati...

In internal ethno-territorial conflicts, what explains why state or rebel group leaderships use civilian-targeting strategies—expulsion or mass killing strategies designed to punish enemy civilians or to decimate the enemy civilian presence on contested territory? One argument is that those living under the worst initial conditions—defined in terms of collective goods such as weak collective au...

The principle of discrimination (or distinction, as it is sometimes called in legal circles) requires that soldiers treat civilians differently from fellow soldiers, generally not attacking the former except in extreme situations. The Geneva Conventions call for a clear separation of people into two camps: those who are protected from assault, including army medical personnel, injured soldiers,...

What is the relationship between the type of training combatants receive upon recruitment into an armed group and their propensity to abuse civilians in civil war? Does military training or political training prevent or exacerbate the victimization of civilians by armed non-state actors? While the literature on civilian victimization has expanded rapidly, few studies have examined the correlati...

BACKGROUND Women who have served in the military are a rapidly growing population. No previous studies have compared directly their health status to that of civilians. PURPOSE To provide estimates of several leading U.S. health indicators by military service status among women. METHODS Data were obtained from the 2010 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance Survey, a U.S. population-based study...

Abstract While the use of force in UN peacekeeping was traditionally limited to self-defence, Security Council now regularly deploys missions with robust mandates protect civilians and encourages their proactive implementation, including by using force. For many years, authorised ‘all necessary means’ from ‘imminent threats’ physical violence, but its recent have often dropped references ‘immin...

OBJECTIVE Previous psychophysiological studies of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) have found heightened physiological responsivity to trauma-specific stimuli, but mostly in combat veterans with high comorbidity rates and with psychiatric medication. Our aim was to investigate psychophysiological responses in two new populations while excluding those confounding influences and to assess the...

UNLABELLED This study measured the facial dimensions of Korean Air Force (KAF) pilots, to design a pilot oxygen mask, and compared them with those of Korean civilians and US Air Force (USAF) personnel. Twenty-two facial dimensions were measured for 278 KAF male pilots (KMP) and 58 KAF female pilots and cadets (KFP) using an anthropometer and a three-dimensional scanner. The KMP face measurement...