The stomach's secretion has been a mystery for centuries. Even after the first indications of its function and role appeared, every formulated idea on the nature of the gastric liquid remained open to controversy. After the ancient Greek perceptions which identified acids as bitter-sour liquids, the physicians of the Iatrochemical School, under the influence of Paracelsus and the alchemists, we...

The medieval Black Death (c. 1347-1351) was one of the most devastating epidemics in human history. It killed tens of millions of Europeans, and recent analyses have shown that the disease targeted elderly adults and individuals who had been previously exposed to physiological stressors. Following the epidemic, there were improvements in standards of living, particularly in dietary quality for ...

e reviews by Izet Masic at al give me the pleasure of enjoying the passionate ideas and advances of Arabic medicine over the end of IX and beginning X centuries (1, 2, 3). ey state this the renaissance to several representative islamic authors such as Avicenna, Aver-roes, Rhazes, Avenzor, Ibn al-Nafis, Abulcasis, and many other wise men in di erent sciences and disciplines. is period is conside...

BACKGROUND Among the diseases that clinicians deal with, few do have a documented medical history that can be traced back to several centuries ago. A careful study of Rhazes' Treatments on Gout reveals a lot about the nature and therapy of gout. METHODS We managed to study the perceptions about pathogenesis, symptomatology, diagnosis, and treatment of gout that have changed over time. We also...

Direct and indirect human impacts on coastal ecosystems have increased over the last several centuries, leading to unprecedented degradation of coastal habitats and loss of ecological services. Here we document a two-century temporal disparity between salt marsh accretion and subsequent loss to indirect human impacts. Field surveys, manipulative experiments and GIS analyses reveal that crab bur...

Hydro-technologies, and especially the need for developing drinking water treatments, have been known since ancient times. Water supply treatment devices were developed even during prehistoric times but improved Classical Hellenistic periods. Nevertheless, after several centuries, particularly last two, intensive effective efforts made all over world to obtain sufficient amounts of with necessa...

In the 19 th – early 20 centuries Semipalatinsk became a major Muslim center of Russian Empire. The city had 11 mosques and several educational institutions maktabs madrasahs. 1900, Muslims created charitable society at around 1904–1905, they opened library society. This event brought significant changes to cultural life city. was attended not only by men, but also women, as well students Women...