The spread of infectious agents through the mail has concerned public health officials for 5 centuries. The dissemination of anthrax spores in the US mail in 2001 was a recent example. In 1901, two medical journals reported outbreaks of smallpox presumably introduced by letters contaminated with variola viruses. The stability and infectivity of the smallpox virus are reviewed from both a histor...

This note examines a silver seal matrix set with very remarkable Roman gem showing the youthful Octavian wearing petasus (a sunhat broad brim) of Mercury. From inscription it belonged to John de Wike. The was probably in late 13th or early 14th century. discusses name owner and design gem.

An example of such practices is the code of rules containing in the thirteenth and fourteenth chapters of Leviticus. These rules define the degree of isolation and other measures to be applied in the case of "lepers." In the early ages, countries remained isolated, and there was little trade between them so no marked spread of infection in an epidemic manner occurred. Measures of self protectio...

*Occam’s razor, named after William of Ockham a Franciscan friar of the early 14th century, refers to the principle of logic that states that the simplest explanation is the most likely correct; in science with competing hypotheses, the one with the fewest assumptions is preferred. Hickam’s dictum is the counter-argument to Occam’s razor in medicine; the statement ‘Patients can have as many dis...

Raman spectra of parchment and vellum have been recorded and used to characterise materials used in mediaeval (10th century) and later works. These studies support our work on the characterisation of pigments used in historiated manuscripts and provide the basis for future studies of the interaction between pigments, binders and parchment or vellum. Examination of the undecorated parts of the m...