This note describes some cryptographic issues related to multi‐located parties. In general, multi‐located parties make it difficult for the eavesdropper to mount the man‐in‐the‐ middle attack. Conversely, they make it easier to address problems such as joint encryption and error correction coding. It is easier to implement the three‐stage quantum cryptography protocol.

This chapter gives a flavour of recent theoretical work on coalition formation and political parties. I survey recent work on both pre-election coalition formation and post election coalition (or government) formation. A number of alternative rationales for the formation of parties are compared with the help of some illustrative examples. JEL Classification:C71, C72, C78, D71, D72, D78

Ethnic divisions, according to empirical democratic theory, and commonsense understandings of politics, threaten the survival of democratic institutions. One of the principal mechanisms linking the politicization of ethnic divisions with the destabilization of democracy is the so-called “outbidding effect.” According to theories of ethnic outbidding, the politicization of ethnic divisions inevi...