Pelvic organ prolapse and urinary stress incontinence are major problems affecting quality of life in a vast number of women. The etiology is most probably multifactorial, with a major contribution of muscular denervation during vaginal delivery, genetic factors, and the aging process. 1-4 The higher prevalence of pelvic organ prolapse and urine incontinence in the postmenopausal period suggest...

Two carpal rows with eight carpal bones form the wrist. From radial to ulnar, the proximal carpal row is formed by scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform, and the distal carpal row by trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate (Fig. 5.1). Stability is maintained by extrinsic (radiocarpal and ulnocarpal) and intrinsic (intercarpal) ligaments. Palmar and dorsal ligaments are differentiated an...

The udder is a very big organ weighing, around 50 kg (including milk and blood). However, weights up to 100 kg have been reported. Therefore, the udder has to be very well attached to the skeleton and muscles. The median ligaments are composed of elastic fibrous tissue, while the lateral ligaments are composed of connective tissue with less elasticity. If the ligaments weaken the udder will bec...

Thirty cruciate ligaments were retrieved from either cadavers or limbs which had been amputated. Each specimen was sectioned and stained to demonstrate the presence of collagen, nerves and vessels. All 30 specimens contained an interconnecting band of collagen fibres between the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments. Vascular structures were present in all specimens and nerve fibres were id...

We present a hypothesis of tyrannosaurid foot function termed the "tensile keystone model," in which the triangular central metatarsal and elastic ligaments dynamically strengthened the foot. The tyrannosaurid arctometatarsus, in which the central metatarsal is proximally constricted, displays osteological correlates of distal intermetatarsal ligaments. The distal wedge-like imbrication of tyra...

Chronic ankle instability after ligamentous injuries has been attributed to loss of proprioception, but there has been no previous study of the mechanoreceptors in human ligaments at this joint. We have examined the ligaments from five cadaver ankles for mechanoreceptors and classified them into the four types described by Wyke and Freeman in their study of feline ligaments. Type-II receptors, ...