The ability of crystallography to illuminate biology and contribute to medical advances continues to grow. Recent advances expand its reach while also asking questions of its practitioners.

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I. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are also called saccharides, which is derived from the Greek word sakcharon meaning sugar. The simplest carbohydrates are called monosaccharides, and the biologically important monosaccharides contain from 3 to 7 carbon atoms. The monosaccharides with 5 carbons (the pentoses) and with 6 carbons (the hexoses) may take on different configurations in an aqueous solut...

The Biological sciences produce an enormous research literature every year. Research papers are highly structured documents whose content is not captured using the traditional techniques of information retrieval: keywords and flat text. This is especially true of the Materials & Methods section of experimental papers. A great deal of highly structured information is packed into this section. It...

At present, no single indicator could be used as a golden index to estimate aging process. The biological age (BA), which combines several important biomarkers with mathematical modeling, has been proposed for >50 years as an aging estimation method to replace chronological age (CA). The common methods used for BA estimation include the multiple linear regression (MLR), the principal component ...

There are presented automatic classification methods which, according to the authors' conceptions, are specific to biology. In section 1 there are included the necessary steps made in the automatic classification. In section 2 there are presented 2 methods of automatic classification which are frequently used in any field and in opposition with it the section 3 presents another method from lite...

Hidden Markov models, the expectation–maximization algorithm, and the Gibbs sampler were introduced for biological sequence analysis in early 1990s. Since then the use of formal statistical models and inference procedures has revolutionized the field of computational biology. This chapter reviews the hidden Markov and related models, as well as their Bayesian inference procedures and algorithms...

Hidden Markov models, the expectation–maximization algorithm, and the Gibbs sampler were introduced for biological sequence analysis in early 1990s. Since then the use of formal statistical models and inference procedures has revolutionized the field of computational biology. This chapter reviews the hidden Markov and related models, as well as their Bayesian inference procedures and algorithms...