Introduction: Learning and memory processes result from interaction of neurotransmitter systems in various brain regions such as amygdala and hippocampus. Considering that morphine induces memory impairment, in the current study, we examined the possible role of cholinergic muscarinic receptors of the central amygdala (CeA) on the morphine-induced amnesia in adult male Wistar rats. Methods...

The phenomenological relationship between consciousness and sleep are reviewed. Consciousness has a selfreflexive component, and while sleeping that is not working as in awakenings. The necessity of some change in narrow concepts of conscious as to be aware and self reflective as well of some aspects of Altered State of Consciousness are explained. In fact, in rapid eye movements [REM] sleep is...

Introduction: Aggressive behavior is a major issue in the field of mental health. Pharmacotherapy is often used for the treatment of violent individuals. A neurochemical system most consistently linked with aggression is the GABAergic system. The aim of the present investigation was to examine the effect of muscimol (GABAA agonist) 250 and 500 ng/rat and picrotoxin (GABAA antagonist) 1.5 and...

LONG TERM EFFECTS OF CHRONIC VARIABLE STRESS ADMINISTERED DURING DIFFERENT DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES IN MICE Henry Boeh, B.A. Marquette University, 2011 A number of studies have suggested that the occurrence of past trauma can increase an individual’s chance of developing PTSD from a new traumatic experience later in life. Trauma that occurs during childhood appears to have a particularly strong eff...

Acupuncture has been accepted to effectively treat chronic pain by inserting needles into the specific "acupuncture points" (acupoints) on the patient's body. During the last decades, our understanding of how the brain processes acupuncture analgesia has undergone considerable development. Acupuncture analgesia is manifested only when the intricate feeling (soreness, numbness, heaviness and dis...

Introduction: Wallerian degeneration (WD) of axons proximal to inflammatory lesions in multiple sclerosis (MS) has been proposed as one contributor to quantitative MRI (qMRI) abnormalities detected in normal-appearing gray matter (NAGM) and white matter (NAWM) [1, 2]. The literature on the role of lesions and their impact on qMRI metrics of normal brain tissue is contradictory [4-7]. The availa...

Antipsychotic medications constitute a diverse series of heterocyclic compounds that are used to treat psychotic problems, particularly schizophrenia and bipolar affective disorders. Heterocyclic molecules such as benzisoxazole derivatives, especially 3-(piperidin-4-yl)-1,2-benzisoxazole have been widely used as antipsychotic drugs. Atypical antipsychotic drugs which are derived from benzisoxaz...

It has been well established that physical activity (exercise) by way of running wheel or treadmill activity improves motor and cognitive performance in (sedentary) mice [1,2,3]. This type of exercise, however, cannot be performed well by aging mice or mice with motor deficiencies. Notably the amount of voluntary exercise of old mice in running wheels decreases largely (up to 90% as compared to...